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Index |
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Study Guide
Overview: what is ethics
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If we look in an old dictionary we find the following definition:
"the science of human duty; the body of rules of duty drawn from this science;
a particular system of principles and rules concertning duty, whether true
or false; rules of practice in respect to a single class of human actions;
as, political or social ethics; medical ethics É" and today computer
ethics. Ethics is the reasoning that we do in order to make decisions that
will not violate our conscience. As the Greeks would say, "to keep one's
soul pure".
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Computer ethics tries to clarify and provide solutions to the issues that
are raised by computers in areas such as privacy, personal property, damage
to others' property, safety, and so forth. Computer ethics falls in the
area of normative ethics, that is the quest for the practical truth
of how one's choices and actions will be good and worthwhile.
Various ethical theories
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Throughout history many ethical theories have developed. Each individual
must choose one, or a combination of them.
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The are two basic approaches to ethics:
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Teleological theories which consider the consequences of an action
as a measure of an action's good.
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Deontological theories which put the rightness of an action above
its "goodness."
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Teleological: Utilitarianism, first advocated by Jeremy Bentham
and John Stuart Mill
Utilitarianism claims that the good is that which provides the greatest
happiness for the greatest number. This theory advocated that one's acts
should maximize the amount of good and happiness for everyone affected
by the actions. One's decision should be based on the consequences that
can be deduced before the action has taken place. Please note that utilitarianism
stresses that one should think about everyone and not just the one(s) making
the decision. As an example our decision to cut down forests should also
include in the analysis how that will affect our grandchildren.
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Deontological:
duty-based ethics -- developed by Immanuel Kant.
This theory stresses that fidelity to principle and duty are the most
important. The consequences of an action, according to Kant do not matter.
What matters is that the act itself is right, that one does one's duty.
One's actions should be ruled by the following imperative " I should never
act except in such a way that I can also will that my maxim should become
a universal law." That is, if one believes that everyone should act this
way and if everyone acting this does not logically lead to a contradiction,
the action is valid. Spinello gives a good example: The rule, " It is permissible
for everyone to break promises when it is in their best interest to do
so," cannot be a valid ethical rule since it leads to a contradiction.
That is, if everyone broke promises, the whole notion of promises would
collapse.
Another philosopher, W.D. Ross built upon Kant's theory and listed a
few basic duties. One should:
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Tell the truth.
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Right the wrongs that one has done to others.
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Act justly.
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Help other in respect to virtue, intelligence, and happiness.
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Improve oneself with respect to virtue and intelligence.
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Give thanks.
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Avoid injury to others.
According to Ross when two of these conflict one should act according to
the more stringent of the above.
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Deontological:
Rights-based ethics -- based on the tradition of Locke and Hobbes.
This theory is based on upholding an individual's human or legal rights,
such as the rights to privacy and ownership of property.
In the philosophical arena, rights are split up into positive and negative
rights. Negative rights refer to freedom from outside interference in certain
activities which are defined by the social norm of the moment. Such rights
are freedom of speech, the right to liberty and privacy.
Positive rights "are those that give one what is needed to freely pursue
his or her interests. " Such rights are right to health care, education
and other similar things. Spinello notes that "In American society there
has been far more emphasis on negative rights then on positive rights"
Contractarianism is a rights-based approach to morality and ethics.
According to this approach, morality is based on the social contact between
government and its citizens. This contract provides certain inalienable
rights such as life, liberty and property. Contractarianism stresses that
a system must be fair and accord all its participants due respect.
Some steps for ethical analysis Spinello
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Identify and formulate the basic issues in each case.
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Consider your first impressions or reactions to these issues. In other
words, what does your moral intuition say about the action or policy under
consideration. Is it right or wrong?
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Are there any normative principles relevant? If so, what impact do they
have on resolving the ethical problem(s)?
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Consider the issues also from the viewpoint of one or more of the ethical
theories and pose some of the questions raised above.
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Do the normative principles and the ethiccal theories point to one decision
or course of action or do they bring you to the different conclusions?
If so, which avenue of reasoning should take precedence?
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What is the normative conclusion about the case, that is, what should be
the organizational or individuals course of action?
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Finally what are the public policy implications of this case and your normative
conclusion? Should the recommended behavior be prescribed through legislation
or regulations?
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